Introduction

Khyati (Epistemology or sources of knowledge) has been a fierce subject of debate in India for many centuries. How can one have valid knowledge (Prama) and what are the proximate means (pramanas) to valid knowledge? This issue is important in Indic dharma systems because of their claim that dhyana (meditation) or japa (repeatation of mantra) can lead to supreme knowledge.

An objection raised to this claim is the possibility that dhyana or japa might be deluding people. How can one know that the experiences claimed by Yogis are not hallucinations? Vedantic Acharyas were sensitive to these issues.

Pramanas

Vedanta darshana developed the idea of pramana to answer the objections to the Yogic experience. Historically, three basic pramanas have been accepted by various Vedantic groups (some groups accept more pramanas). These are (1) Pratakshya (direct perception), (2) Anumana (inference) and (3) Sabda Pramana (Vedas).

Pratakshya is sensory perception. Every minute of our waking life we gather data through this means. Anumana allows us to deduce from indirect evidence. Sabda Pramana is simply the Yogic experience obtained through spiritual practice. Vedas are simply the most ancient spiritual experiential data that is available to us.

The Rishi, who wrote the Svetasvatara Upanishad, directly affirms that: I know this great Person (Brahman) who is resplendent like the sun and is beyond darkness. By knowing Him alone one transcends death; there is no other path to go by. (Svetasvatara.

Upanishad 3.8)

This kind of bold affirmation of Truth is important for a beginner and is a source of

comfort for ordinary Hindus.

Lokayata objections

Even these pramanas were objected to by some people, specially, the Nastika Lokayatas who followed the teachings of Rishi Charvaka. They rejected Sabda Pramana as irrelevant since it is not based on sensory data. They also rejected Anumana as insufficient and even dangerous.

The point they made was that many people have inferred, falsely, the presence of a ghost in a dark night which turned out merely to be a tree. They rejected any data that is not obtained through Pratkshya. Reply to Lokayata objections Astika groups say that such a position would say that senses and reason are the only sources of knowledge.

This raises a very important question. How can one know if the reality that we see through our senses and by applying reason is the ENTIRE reality? Can Lokayatas give a guarantee that such is the case? Then there is the question of dropping Anumana from the list of pramanas.

Modern Science says that quarks can never be directly observed but can only be inferred through experiments. If you drop anumana then even modern science will come to a screeching halt. Sabda Pramana

Astika groups assert that Sabda Pramana is extremely important in spiritual practice. Why have they taken such a stance? Sabda Pramana is absolutely necessary for a beginner. How can one even start one's enquiry into the Ultimate Reality without some body of pre-existing knowledge? Jaimini points out that the Veda (sabda Pramana) is the source of our knowledge just where pratakshya and Anuman fail to be of assistance to us (Mimansa Sutra I.i.5).

Sayanacharya says in the introduction to his commentary on Rig Veda that the chief function of Sabda Pramana is to communicate the knowledge of the two higher ideals of dharma and moksha and the proper means to their realization. Vedantic Acharyas were, however, sensitive to the charge that Yogic experience is merely hallucinatory.

It is entirely possible that a single rishi may be misled and his experience may be just a hallucination. So Vedantic Acharyas have made the Sruti a library and NOT a single book. Sruti records the collective experience of many rishis. It is of course true that even many rishis might have been misled but the chances are smaller.

The second precaution they took was to see if the best minds of Hindus would accept the Vedas as sabda Pramana for a long period of time. The argument was that if the best minds think that there is some truth in the Vedas then one's confidence in the Vedas increases.

Thirdly, there is always the route of spiritual practice and directly testing the Vedic claims. Finally, there have been men like Sri Ramakrishna, Sri Sankaracharya and many others who have claimed that they have had the same experience as the Rishis.